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<channel>
	<title>Love of History &#187; ancient</title>
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	<link>http://loveofhistory.com</link>
	<description>A historical perspective of current events</description>
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		<title>Morality of Money in Ancient Greece and Rome</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/morality-of-money-in-ancient-greece-and-rome/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/morality-of-money-in-ancient-greece-and-rome/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 03 Jan 2020 15:32:07 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Coins]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[greece]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[money]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Rome]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://loveofhistory.com/?p=3719</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[How many times have you used terms loaded with moral judgement when you mention money? How many of you think that money is ‘evil’ or that debt is ‘disgraceful’? How many of you watched Benefits Street in 2014 and argued with disdain that you would never end up in this position? For those of you who do not watch tv, Benefits Street was a documentary series broadcast in Channel 4. It showed benefits claimants committing crimes, thieving and cheating. It was so successful (despite the opposition) that it continued in a variety of forms, e.g. Benefits Britain: Life on the Dole in Channel 5 and The Great British Benefits Handout again in Channel 5. The moralising comments the series received are short of extraordinary in this day and age, when we kind of understand how economics work. For the past few years, I listened in utter amazement to people in the streets trying to justify the fact that they were disabled or homeless and consequently had to claim benefits in order to survive! The moral police was certainly in the corner overhearing the discussions and delivering profound judgements! This phenomenon is not new. In fact its existence can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world. Its roots are dug deeply into ancient philosophy. According to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.), moral philosophy is the part of philosophy which treats of the virtues and vices, the criteria of right and wrong, the formation of virtuous character and the like.  In this post I would like to make a few hints on the moral principles that ancient Greeks and Romans were supposed to follow concerning the economy in general, and money specifically. These principles were established mainly by ancient Greek philosophers and were subsequently adopted by the Romans. An interest towards the morality of money can easily be seen in Aristotle’s Ethica Nicomachea or even Politika. In ancient Greek society, morality included not only principles regarding justice, autarkeia (independence of economic means), balance of needs and goods, but it also influenced the economic thoughts and the economic functions of the State and the people.  On the other side, politics (politike) formed constitutions based on these principles. Greeks and subsequently Romans combined morality, politics and economy in their thinking in order to achieve their ultimate aim: the welfare of the individual and of the society. Specifically, the influence of morality on the economy magnifies the economic results. It also enhances human happiness, since it balances the needs towards the available goods and it restricts the unnecessary accumulation of wealth. After all such immense wealth might lead the citizens to unjust actions. Or so the ancients thought, before Neoliberalism dominated all aspects of politics and economy at the end of the 20th century and beyond. Aristotle believed that virtues, and especially the virtue of justice (which is the ultimate principle of political economy) had to influence the behaviour of the state.  From this point of view, the virtues that define ‘arete’ (the ultimate virtue) may also define the economy. The conclusion of ancient Greek philosophy was that political, economical and ethical criteria should be in harmony with each other so that society and economy might not only survive but also flourish. The interconnection between these aspects could not be doubted as they all worked together towards the happiness of the individual. The Romans were the faithful followers of the Greeks, when it came to the main principles of the morality of money. Two major historiographical works from the first half of the third century AD contain valuable information on the subject: the Roman Histories of Dio Cassius and Herodian.  Both writers belonged to the educated urban classes; Dio was a senator and Herodian was a knight.  Effectively, they were both owners of substantial wealth and involved in the imperial politics of their time. Both held similar views about how humanity in general, and the emperor in particular, should behave, when it came to money. The historians give us a plethora of moral comments concerning the use of money by the emperor and his role in the welfare of the empire as well as the happiness of the individuals. They also attempt to distinguish between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ emperors and to ascribe different moral characteristics to each one of them. Monetary terminology tends to be loaded with moral afterthoughts that eventually would have influenced monetary policies. After all, which emperor would have liked to be judged and fall short of this judgement posthumously? For example, all emperors were severely criticised every time they were trying to find new ways to raise funds or raise taxes.  Some of their revenues were acceptable and honourable, while some others caused the condemnation of the historians (as well as the general public). The rulers probably had a clear idea of what was just and what was unjust revenue (dikaios kai adikos poros) (Dio 78.10.4). The use of the word ‘dikaios’ does not imply that the emperor was liable towards the law for his fiscal decisions. On the contrary, he was only restrained by the moral code of his era.  Herodian and Dio do not give us an exhaustive list of the regular revenues of the State or which of these were acceptable, but they make certain comments that show their approval of some and their disapproval of others.  Specifically, Dio Cassius seems to be in favour of the fiscal policy of certain emperors of the second century AD (the so called Adopted Emperors), such as Nerva, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Pertinax.  It is significant that all of them reigned during the second century AD and not later, before the socio-economic and political crisis of the empire started.  Their main similarity is that they handled their own property as if it belonged to the Roman people, without concern for their own benefit.  For example, Nerva ‘when he run short of funds, he sold much wearing apparel and many vessels of silver and gold, besides furniture, both his own and that which belonged to the imperial residence, and many estates and houses &#8211; in fact everything except what was indispensable’ (Dio 68.2.1-3).  The same policy followed Marcus Aurelius who ‘exposed in the Forum all the heirlooms of the palace together with any ornaments that belonged to his wife, and urged any who so desired to buy them’ (Dio 72.fragments) while Pertinax ‘raised money as best he could from the statues, the arms, the horses, the furniture, and the favourites of Commodus’ (Dio 74.5.4); Trajan and Septimius Severus because the first ‘drained no ones blood’ (Dio 68.7.1) and the second ‘raised money from every source, except that he killed no one to get it’ (Dio 77.16.1). We should not assume that our historians condemned the use of money. On the contrary, they acknowledged the necessity and they declared that ‘money was the sinews of sovereignty’, although the imposition of taxes or other contributions could trigger the anger of the population.  On one hand they understood the practicalities related to money and the necessity of strict monetary policies. On the other hand, they did not hesitate to use morally loaded language to describe the financial actions of individual emperors. It’s not the money that the Romans were afraid of but its use. At the hands of the wrong people wealth could cause a lot of suffering to the citizens and damage to the state. During the first half of the third century, when Dio Cassius and Herodian lived, they had the opportunity to see with their own eyes the effects of the political and military anarchy that burdened the empire on the citizens. They witnessed the swift succession in the upper echelons of society following the demise of the emperors, one after another. And they probably felt the results also in their daily lives and the lives of their children; that is, if they survived the political machinations. Certainly such an experience would have led them to the scrutiny of the monetary policies with religious and moral tools. Their moralising comments have two aims: a) to explain the causes of the situation, and possibly b) to give subtle advice to the emperor, who was responsible for the financial policy of the State. Do not fool yourselves that their writing did not have the stamp of approval from the emperor that was leading the empire at the time. Otherwise, the historians would not have lived long enough to publish their works! They would not have criticised their own emperor directly, unless they had a death wish. The ideal ruler, whom they describe in their work, derives from the wisdom of ancient greek philosophers, such as Aristoteles. They emphasize on his benevolent role, which is attested in the way he balances revenues and expenditure without turning into unjust practices.  The emperor’s just and moderate administration would guarantee Common Benefit and, in turn, individual happiness.  We do not have any evidence that the emperors were aware of Aristotle, or the need for a benevolent role for them. What we do know is that the upper echelons of society (to which our historians belonged) would have subscribed to these ideals.]]></description>
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		<title>The American School of Archaeology in Corinth</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/the-american-school-of-archaeology-in-corinth/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/the-american-school-of-archaeology-in-corinth/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 24 Nov 2019 15:43:52 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Colonisation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[corinth]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[greece]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://loveofhistory.com/?p=3704</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Recently a few photographs appeared in the Facebook page of the American School of Archaeology at Athens. They were photographs of the diaries of the first American archaeologists who excavated Ancient Greek Corinth. The excavations started at the end of the nineteenth century in 1896 and by now we have diaries that cover this year until 2007. Specifically, there are 1116 excavation diaries (digitalised) of around 200 pages each. This is a wealth of information for modern archaeologists of ancient Corinth as well as historians of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. As you probably already know, Corinth was one of the most significant cities in the ancient Greco-Roman world. It played pivotal role in the Peloponnesian war, in the Macedonian wars, and later, in the establishment of Roman power and the gradual colonisation of Greece. The decision of the Americans to undertake the excavations of such an important city, which was so close to Athens, was not an accidental (or incidental) one. It was part of the modern attempts by the Great Western Powers to culturally colonise Greece after the foundation of the Modern Greek State in the early nineteenth century; a Greece that may have been poor in money and power but was certainly wealthy in tradition and history. So wealthy, that it influenced the western civilisation as a whole. A similar process of cultural colonisation was followed also in the centre of nineteenth and twentieth century Athens. Yiannis Hamilakis describes it eloquently in his article “Double Colonization: The Story of the Excavations of the Athenian Agora (1924-1931)” in Hesperia  82:1 (2013). Through the clashes between evicted residents and the archaeologists who excavated the Athenian Agora, he analyses a complex process of double colonisation: the colonisation of Greece by the ideals of Hellenism and the colonisation of the specific locality by modern archaeology. As you read the article, it is intriguing to watch the diplomatic games unfolding in the shadow of the $250.000 dollars that the Rockefeller Foundation donated for the excavations. As the Americans demanded undivided loyalty from the Greeks in their vision of the Athenian Agora, animosity against the project seemed to become deeper. The excavations eventually became the National project of two countries, Greece as well as the United States of America. It also became the battleground of nationalist ideologies for people (Greeks as well as Americans) who claimed to be descendants of the ancient Greeks. The only losers in this process were the poor displaced residents of the area. It looks like the excavations at Corinth were not marred by similar dramatic developments. Still, they were used in the forging of two disparate national identities, the Greek one and the American one. Consequently, the importance of the archaeological investigations remains significant for the study of the ancient and the modern world alike. This importance was acknowledged in the US in 1932, when the benefactor Ada Small More donated a substantial amount of money towards the building of the modern museum in Corinth. Almost two decades later &#8211; in 1950 &#8211; the same benefactor arranged the expansion of the museum, which desperately needed to host the new findings. The visitor today can attest to the glory of the ancient city, when she or he sees the Roman agora, the temples, the baths. I mention the Roman buildings because very few Greek monuments survived the animosity of the Roman conquerors that levelled the city in 146 BC. Even so, we can still see Apollo’s temple from the 6th century BC; the temple was known to the second century AD travellers Pausanias and Plutarch who describe it for the benefit of future generations. The site attracts around 200,000 tourists a year, even if it is off the main track of known antiquities. And, as if tourists were not enough, the archaeological site is used for the training of new students of archaeology. If you ever visit Ancient Corinth during the summer, you will see them toiling under the scorching sun! Currently the archaeological site is far away from the city of Corinth. I have been lost more than once trying to find it, while using only the ambiguous signs. GPS technology, since then, made my life infinitely easier, though not as interesting. But what would the site have looked like more than a century ago? You can imagine the few American archaeologists -predominately from affluent families &#8211; that descended upon the rural countryside at the end of the nineteenth century. At that time, people were poor farmers that barely survived after hard winters. The archaeologists brought plenty of money with them, which they used either to rent the fields or buy them outright. The farmers traded their agricultural activities for archaeological ones. The Americans would have hired at least 100 people at a time to dig the area. They received a substantial salary that allowed them to leave their fields and their crops for the duration of the excavations. And if one of the locals wanted to ask “What did the Americans do for us?” (apart from colonising the area and buying off the land and its people)… well… they actually brought sanitation in the area. In this region people suffered chronically from malaria and typhus. The Americans attempted to close the open wells, and purified the water with chlorine. They also re-routed the waters in order to drain the swamp. Despite local suspicions, they managed to enhance the life of the people in the region. The archaeological diaries of Corinth may sound tedious for the non-expert but they hide historical truths about the ancient Corinthians as well as the modern ones. At this point, I would not like to bore you with details related to the stratigraphy, the note taking, or the description of the artefacts. For more information on those, visit the following article by Meropi Kokkini here https://www.lifo.gr/articles/archaeology_articles/251926/selides-apo-ta-imerologia-ton-amerikanon-arxaiologon-poy-eskapsan-stin-korintho . Sorry, it is in Greek but for those who are determined Google Translate can do miracles! I would urge you, though, to take a closer look at the photos with the amazing material coming straight from the past.]]></description>
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		<title>Ancient city discovered in Greece</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/ancient-city-discovered-in-greece/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/ancient-city-discovered-in-greece/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 20 May 2013 10:20:24 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[excavation]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[mycenaean]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://loveofhistory.com/?p=2568</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Ancient historians may complain about the lack of new data coming to surface. Archaeologists, on the other hand, do not seem to have such a problem, since new excavations reveal new and exciting material all the time. Of course, most of the sites are already known to seasoned archaeologists, although excavations are slow to come about due to increasing financial difficulties. An announcement on a new ancient city found in Greece is about the city of Thuria in Messenia (south west Peloponnese). The excavations aimed at the positioning and further studying of the Mycenaean palace in the city. The artefacts include a Linear B tablet dating again from the Mycenaean period. The tablet bears the symbol of a double axe. Other artefacts date from the neolithic period (rock art with a medusa and a dolphin) and a benefactor&#8217;s inscription from the first century AD. For a photo of the ancient city follow this LINK The Mycenaean Woman is from a fresco that does not belong to this site. Source:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Mycenaean_Woman.jpg]]></description>
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		<item>
		<title>Inscriptions of Attica online.</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/inscriptions-of-attica-online/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/inscriptions-of-attica-online/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 19 Dec 2012 16:44:48 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[athens]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[attica]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[inscriptions]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1819</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[You can find some of the published inscriptions of Athens and Attica in English translation at the following site: www.atticinscriptions.com &#8220;It is being launched with translations of the 281 inscribed laws and decrees of Athens, 352/1-322/1 BC, which have recently been edited by Stephen Lambert as *IG *II3 1, 292-572.&#8221; (Seen in Classics list) The material will probably be updated soon enough to include a lot more information. So, keep checking!]]></description>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>Realencyclopaedie online</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/realencyclopaedie-online/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/realencyclopaedie-online/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 01 Dec 2012 16:28:46 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Encyclopeadia]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[history]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1790</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[&#8220;Since 2007, a handful of volunteers is working on the task of reproducing the Pauly-Wissowa&#8217;s &#8216;Realencyclopaedie&#8217; in the internet [2]. This project is hosted on Wikisource, a sister project of Wikipedia. Of course, Wikisource only features RE articles that are out of copyright, which means (in Europe) the author must be dead for more than 70 years. Now this project has reached a milestone: 10,000 articles, nearly all of them proof-read and interlinked. Also, the volunteers are creating a biographical (and bibliographical) index of the RE authors [3]. Check out the original press release [1] and the project page [2] (both in German) for more information. [1] http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Kurier&#38;oldid=111079207 [2] http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/RE [3] http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/RE/A&#8221; Classics list]]></description>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>Arrests in Crete</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/arrests-in-crete/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/arrests-in-crete/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 05 Nov 2012 05:54:42 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[artefacts]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Crete]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[greece]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1769</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[The police in Crete seems to have had some success in retrieving stolen artefacts and arresting the culprits. Specifically, they arrested 8 men in Messara (Herakleion) last Thursday. They found among others a Roman vase, the upper part of a column, twenty coins from the fifth century BC to the Roman period, some weapons from the Second World War and copious quantities of modern drugs! The gang does not seem to very serious in its efforts of amassing ancient treasures. Nevertheless, I include a photo here, which does not seem to correlate with the stolen artefacts. Could not the Greek police take a couple of photos with their mobile phones to show them to &#8216;starving for news&#8217; (and work) archaeologists? For the news in Greek you may take a look at this site, where you will also find the photo of the wrong artefacts. http://www.protothema.gr/greece/article/?aid=232397]]></description>
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		<title>Ancient curse on a cup</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/ancient-curse-on-a-cup/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/ancient-curse-on-a-cup/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 01 Nov 2012 07:13:58 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Languages]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Curse]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1755</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[I have always been fascinated by ancient curses. We tend to find them on funerary stele or on little bronze tablets in temples. Occasionally, they may be found also in other materials, such as the cup (skyphos) that was unearthed in Methone of Pieria. This is definitely the oldest curse inscribed on a symposium cup and is dated between 730-690 BC. The inscription says &#8216;I am (the cup) of Akesandros and (whoever steals me) will lose his eyes (or money). It is worth mentioning that another cup with a similar inscription has been found in Kyme, Southern Italy. It looks like some men were very attached to their drinking habits and associated tools! If you want to see a photo of the artefact, check out this link. http://www.newsbomb.gr/blogs/story/248483/arhaia-katara-pano-se-potiri-sti-methoni]]></description>
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		</item>
		<item>
		<title>Wikiloot</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/wikiloot/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/wikiloot/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 23 Jun 2012 10:58:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[antiquities]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[stolen]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1687</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Finally, activists aim at creating an Open Source platform that will include photos and information of all the antiquities that have been stolen. Wikiloot will be the name of the new crowdsourcing platform, a new experiment on data mining. Its creator seems to be Jason Felch, the co-writer of Chasing Aphrodite, the story of the stolen statue of Aphrodite and its return to its native island of Sicily.Felch and his team are trying to raise the necessary funding for the creation of the platform. For more information on the project there is an article in the Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/jun/06/wikiloot-crowdsourcing-stolen-artifacts You can also follow them on twitter @WikiLoot]]></description>
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		<item>
		<title>New discovery of ancient temple?</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/new-discovery-of-ancient-temple/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/new-discovery-of-ancient-temple/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 16 May 2012 05:59:04 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[archaeology]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[classics]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[temple]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1648</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[How many times have you found yourself walking without noticing anything around you. It looks like it happened to me countless times. Last week, when I stopped and looked, I realised I may have been on top of an ancient (classical or Hellenistic?) temple. I will not disclose the exact area because the architectural elements I found have not been catalogued. Suffice to say it is on the eastern coast of Attica. I also could use some help from expert archaeologists to explain what I am looking at. On the whole, I found seven large pieces of stone and marble. The marble is either Pentelic or Parian (I could never tell the difference with a naked eye). I found small pieces of marble but no precious pottery. There were a few pieces of coarse ware here and there that I cannot possibly date. Take a look and let me know your opinion.]]></description>
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		<item>
		<title>Podcasts and videos on ancient medicine</title>
		<link>http://loveofhistory.com/podcasts-on-ancient-medicine/</link>
		<comments>http://loveofhistory.com/podcasts-on-ancient-medicine/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 28 Apr 2012 11:47:44 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[constantinakatsari]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ancient]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Helen King]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[medicine]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://constantinakatsari.wordpress.com/?p=1588</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[I would strongly recommend listening to the following podcasts and videos, if you have even a distant interest in ancient medicine. Helen King, professor in ancient history, talks about her work. Recent podcasts: On ancient medicine, and &#8216;Gladiator&#8217;, April 2012: http://www8.open.ac.uk/platform/news-and-features/professor-helen-king-ancient-medicine-and-the-flashing-midwife (NB the full content is not available if accessed on an iPad) On Agnodike the &#8216;flashing midwife&#8217;, March 2012: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkMILds1Gg4&#38;feature=youtu.be On the Hippocratic Oath, with Peter Pormann and Vivian Nutton, September 2011: http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b014gdqq/In_Our_Time_The_Hippocratic_Oath/]]></description>
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